Below are common primary sources and how to cite them using MLA formatting style. You can also visit our How Citations Work guide to learn more about how to credit your sources and avoid plagiarism.
Remember to check with your instructor regarding citation requirements.
Cartoons and illustrations, such as political cartoons, often represent the historical perspectives and opinions of the time when they were published. They can be found in newspapers, magazines, and other periodicals. They can also be found in archival collections and databases.
A cartoon or illustration will have some or most of this information within the citation in the following order:
Examples (with an author/artist):
Franklin, Benjamin. "Join or Die." The Pennsylvania Gazette, 9 May 1754. The New York Public Library Digital Collections, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/481655d0-de6e-0138-3be8-0d3aa26c8197.
Knox, Jack. "Whip Behind!" Between 1937 and 1944. Nashville Public Library, https://nashville.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/nr/id/979.
Moore, Bruce. "An Opportunity to See the World: Foreign Travel--Good Pay--Expenses Paid." 1900-1929. North Carolina Digital Collections, https://digital.ncdcr.gov/documents/detail/570389.
Examples (without an author/artist):
"Some Women are Sending Their Men." Circa 1914-1918. Temple University Libraries, https://digital.library.temple.edu/digital/collection/p16002coll9/id/3794.
"Buy War Bonds." 1929-1945. North Carolina Digital Collections, https://digital.ncdcr.gov/Documents/Detail/buy-war-bonds/455343.
In-Text Citations:
(Last name Page #) > (Bridger 6)
(Franklin)
(Knox)
("Some Women")
("Buy War Bonds")
Note:
Government documents and legal works come from different levels of government (federal, state, city, etc.), government agencies (United Sates Department of Justice, Mecklenburg County's Board of Elections, etc.), and other institutions. They can be found on government websites as well as archival collections and databases.
In general, government documents will have some or most of this information within the citation in the following order:
Examples:
Supreme Court of the United States. Brown v. Board of Education. 17 May 1954. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. "Dental Assistants." Occupational Outlook Handbook, U.S. Department of Labor, 2023 Sep. 6. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/dental-assistants.htm.
United States Congress. Improving Broadband Access for Veterans Act of 2016. Congress.gov, https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/6394/text. 114th Congress, 2nd session, House Resolution 6394, passed 6 Dec. 2016.
In-Text Citations:
(Supreme Court)
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics)
(United States Congress)
Note:
Oral histories and interviews capture firsthand memories and accounts of a people's lives, event, places, etc. It's a conversation that takes place between the person telling a story and an interviewer. This conversation is often recorded in audio, but it can also be recorded in video format or included in an article.
An oral history or interview will have some or most of this information within the citation in the following order:
Example:
Griffin, Arthur. "Oral History Interview with Arthur Griffin." Oral Histories of the American South, conducted by Pamela Grundy, 7 May 1999. Documenting the American South, https://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/K-0168/menu.html.
In-Text Citation:
(Griffin)
Photographs are common primary sources because they present a visual record of a moment in time. They can be used to enhance our understanding of events, people, places, and much more.
A photograph will have some or most of this information within the citation in the following order:
Examples:
Bernstein, Aaron. Photograph of Women's March. "Race and Feminism: Women's March Recalls the Touchy History," by Karen Grigsby Bates, 21 Jan. 2017. NPR, https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/01/21/510859909/race-and-feminism-womens-march-recalls-the-touchy-history.
Silver, Walter. Factory. 1986. New York Public Library Digital Collections, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/51fd9310-ea71-0131-8221-58d385a7bbd0.
In-Text Citations:
(Bernstein)
(Silver)
Note:
Films and moving images are helpful for studying not only the technology of a time, but also the prevailing social attitudes.
There are different ways to cite a video sources. Pick the one that best suits your source.
Format:
Title of Video in italics. Contributor(s), Publisher/Production Company, Date. Title of Library Database in italics, URL of video.
Example:
Universal Newsreels, Release 25, March 21, 1932. Universal Pictures Company, 1932. Alexander Street, https://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/bibliographic_entity|video_work|1789091.
In-text citation (Title of video, shorten if necessary):
(Universal Newsreels)
Format:
Last Name, First Name of Video Creator or Name of Organization. "Title of Video in quotes." Title of the Hosting Website in italics, uploaded by Username (if applicable), Day Month Year of Publication, URL of video.
Examples:
Department of Defense, Department of the Navy, Naval Photographic Center. "D-Day: Normandy Invasion." U.S. National Archives, 6 June 1944, https://catalog.archives.gov/id/2521163.
Cummings, J. "Curious Baby Manatee." Youtube, uploaded by J Cummings, 25 Mar. 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKtPb4O_I3E.
In-text citation (Author's last name or Organization name):
(Department of Defense, Department of the Navy, Naval Photographic Center)
(Cummings)
Format:
Title of Movie in italics. Contributor(s), Publisher/Production Company, Year of Release. Name of Streaming Service in italics (if applicable).
Example:
The Monuments Men. Directed by George Clooney, 20th Century Studios, 2014.
In-text citation (Title of movie, shorten if necessary):
(The Monuments Men)
Format:
"Title of Episode in quotes." Title of TV Series in italics, Contributor(s), season #, episode #, Production Company, Year of Release. Name of Streaming Service in italics (if applicable).
Example:
"The One Where Chandler Can't Cry." Friends, created by Marta Kauffman, performance by Matthew Perry, season 6, episode 14, Warner Brothers, 2004. HBO Max.
In-text citation (Title of episode, shorten if necessary):
("The One Where Chandler Can't Cry")
Note: